Human interactions with forest landscape in the Khumbu valley, Nepal

High altitude Himalayan regions are geo-dynamically active and sensitive to natural disturbances. Nonetheless, even in this remote region, human pressure is often most important in influencing forest and landscape structure. In the last decades, fuelwood demand has risen due to increasing numbers of tourists and mountaineers. To understand human interactions with forest resources, stand structure and composition were examined at the landscape scale in the Sagarmatha National Park and its Buffer Zone in the Khumbu valley (Nepal). Using biological and historical data sources, a multi-scale approach revealed the influence of human activities on the distribution of tree species and forest structure. We sampled stand structure and environmental characteristics from 173 plots, and derived anthropogenic variables from thematic maps and satellite images for multivariate statistical analyses. Results suggest relationships among forest structure, anthropogenic influences, and topography. Low-density stands (100-150 tph) with sparse trees and rare big trees were in close proximity (0 ??? 36 m) to tracks and lodges. The wide variability in species diversity (0.67 at SNP and 0.58 at BZ) was strongly related to environmental factors, such as elevation, and human pressure. The frequent removal of green branches has adverse effects on tree growth, forest resistance, resilience, and regeneration capacity. We conclude that natural resources can adequately supply the local population needs, but current practices are not sustainable.