Do founder size, genetic diversity and structure influence rates of expansion of North American grey squirrels in Europe?

Aim This study investigates how founder size may affect local genetic diversity and spatial genetic structure of the invasive American eastern grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) in European areas. It also examines whether dispersal pro- pensity and invasion rate may be related to founder size, genetic diversity and structure. Location Piedmont,Italy;NorthernIreland,NorthumberlandandEastAnglia,UK. Methods Across the invaded range in Europe, 315 squirrels from 14 locations, grouped in four areas, were sampled and examined at 12 highly polymorphic microsatellite loci. We estimated both genetic variation and population struc- ture using AMOVA, Mantel tests and Bayesian analysis. We also estimated migration rates and range expansion rates. Results Genetic diversity varied in accordance with numbers of founders across populations. For instance, the Italian population had the smallest founder size and lowest genetic variability, whereas Northumberland had high values for both. Significant levels of genetic differentiation were observed in all the exam- ined regions. Gene flow, migration and population range expansion rate were also higher in England and Ireland than in Italy. Main conclusions Populations descending from human-mediated releases of few individuals were more genetically depauperate and more differentiated than populations established from a greater number of founders. Propagule pressure is therefore a significant factor in squirrel invasions. There is a trend whereby larger founder sizes were associated with greater genetic diversity, more dis- persal, less local genetic differentiation and faster range expansion rate in squir- rels. These findings have important management implications for controlling spread rate of squirrels and other invasive species: good practice should priori- tize preventing further releases and the merging of genetically distinct popula- tions as these events can augment genetic diversity.