The role of spectrochemical techniques for the detection, identification, and quantification of residues and metabolites of pharmaceuticals in the environment: a review of developments in ecopharmacovigilance over the past decade

Environmental pollution, associated with economic growth, has become a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Pharmaceuticals, while beneficial to health, also pose serious threats to human communities and ecosystems due to their entire lifecycle from conception to disposal. The pharmaceutical industry and healthcare facilities contribute notably to air, water, and soil pollution, leading to adverse effects on health and the environment. Detectable concentrations of pharmaceutical residues, their metabolites, and degradation products in environmental compartments, as well as in food, feed, and workplaces, highlight the negative impacts of these substances. This situation has led to the development of two disciplines: ecopharmacology and ecopharmacovigilance. These fields aim to detect major environmental issues related to drug residues at an early stage. Public awareness regarding the environmental impact of medicinal products is increasing. This review covers the period from 2015 to the present, providing an understanding of how spectrochemical techniques address this challenge. The reviewed literature demonstrates that spectrochemical techniques are evolving and significantly contributing to ecopharmacovigilance. Techniques based on MS/MS spectrometry combined with separative LC methods (UHPLC and HPLC) account for 87% of the total usage, with other techniques like GC-MS, DART-MS/MS, SERS, and HRMS following. Data comparisons indicate an increase in the use of MS/MS hyphenated with liquid chromatography techniques, rising from about 87% to approximately 94%. There are also signs of growing interest in the SERS technique. Sample pretreatment often involves solvent extraction followed by SPE clean-up. Acetonitrile, sometimes mixed with reagents like formic acid, is commonly used. Some methods include preliminary steps such as freeze-drying solid samples; others involve simple homogenization of liquid samples or thawing of solid or semi-solid samples. Most procedures end with evaporation under nitrogen, reconstitution in water-methanol solvent, and filtration or centrifugation prior to analysis. Liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry is frequently used, including sophisticated equipment like MS/MS and UHPLC, enabling multi-residual analyses of numerous APIs and metabolites. Veterinary drugs are often investigated due to their extensive use in livestock production. The Review underscores the ongoing evolution of spectrochemical techniques, highlighting their role in developing ecopharmacovigilance. It is vital to bridge knowledge gaps concerning the properties of APIs and understand removal mechanisms and technology effectiveness. Improved comprehension in these areas will enhance the efficiency of removing drug residues from the environment. The analytical capabilities, versatility, and detection power of spectrochemical techniques will play a crucial role in achieving this goal.