Discrimination, Stigma and Taboo Towards the Three Ms’ Working Body: A Systematic Review Around Menstruation, Maternity and Menopause

Menstruation, maternity and menopause are three natural and everyday experiences in most women’s lives, but they often intersect in complex ways with career paths and workplace dynamics. In this study, the existing literature on these “three Ms” is systematically examined in relation to taboo, discrimination and stigma in work context, taking into account the PRISMA guidelines. A total of 84 articles from Pubmed, Scopus and Web of Science databases were analyzed. Most of the articles included refer to studies conducted in post-industrial, English-speaking countries, and only a few of them were conducted in non-post-industrial and low-income countries. The review is structured around the three key phases of the female reproductive life course: menstruation, maternity and menopause. These three Ms are examined using a tripartite framework: (1) the individual and subjective level, which focuses on personal experiences, identity, and psychological responses; (2) the organizational environment, which examines workplace policies, professional cultures, and institutional practices; and (3) attitudes and effects on well-being, including societal perceptions, stigma, and effects on psychological and overall health. This multi-level approach provides a comprehensive understanding of how these transitions are experienced, managed and interpreted both individually and in the socio-organizational environment. Despite the near parity in employment rates between men and women and the prevalence of the three Ms in post-industrial with high income countries, the literature is less extensive than expected, suggesting that there is limited academic engagement with the topic. The study highlights the reciprocal relationship between cultural beliefs and academic research. Increased academic attention to menstruation, maternity and menopause in relation to taboo, stigma and discrimination in the workplace could enhance public discourse and help improve the experiences of women at these life stages throughout their careers.