”All one needs for one’s brief life on earth is a handful of rice and a hat”. This ancient Chinese saying clearly sketches with few words the importance of this crop for man. Rice is a crop enwrapped with symbolisms, sacredness and tradition, which remind us of the Celestial Empire, the legendary exploits of Alexander of Macedon and Arab occupation of most Southern parts of Europe. Few crops have created such a solid cultural heritage as rice, and has had such deep influence on food and gastronomic traditions, behavior of rural communities, arts and literature. The origin of rice is uncertain, even if it is believed that the plant originated some million of years ago in the Hindustan, a geographical area that includes, at present, the Indian state of Assam, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Myanmar. It has been estimated that this plant has fed more people over a longer period than has any other crop. Even now, one half of the world population and virtually all of East and Southeast Asia is wholly dependent upon rice. In Bangladesh, Myanmar and Viet Nam, for instance, the annual rice consumption per person ranges from 150 to 200 kg and accounts for most caloric and protein intake. Some hundred millions of small farmers and landless workers derive their income from rice production. In most Asian countries rice cultivation provides main employment to the majority of people as it requires up to 250 person-days per hectare. Rice shows an incredible capacity to adapt itself to a great variety of soil and climatic conditions. It is cultivated in areas such as those in the Upper Sind in Pakistan, where the rice season temperature averages 33°C, or in temperate climate areas, like those in Northern Italy, where the mean temperature during the growing season is about 18°C. Rice is grown under a wide range of water availability, from annual rainfall of about 100 mm (Al Hasa Oasis in Saudi Arabia) to 5,000 mm (Myanmar’s Arakan Coast) a year. The crop is cultivated at very different altitudes, from sea level, in river deltas, to the Himalayan slopes of Nepal, at 2,600 m. Globally, rice occupies about 145 million ha, a surface which constitutes one-tenth of the arable land, while in the majority of Asian countries it is one-third or more of the planted area. India, China, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Viet Nam and Thailand are the largest rice producing countries. All these countries together account for more than three quarters of the total world production. During the four decades after World War II, rice surface increased by almost 70% and the total production roughly tripled. During this span of time, most traditional rice importing countries with severe rice security problems (e.g. India, Viet Nam, Philippines) achieved self-sufficiency in rice. The greatest achievements were obtained mainly from the early 1960s, with the so called Green Revolution, which led to the cultivation of new lands to rice or the shift into rice from other crops and to the introduction of higher-yielding varieties or increased cropping intensity. Since 1990 the rice harvested area enlarged by only about 0.4% a year, and average yield of the crop increased by about 2%. If this trend and the estimates of the Asian population growth rate are maintained over the next decades, rice production will fail to keep pace with population growth. In major rice producing and consuming countries in Asia, the population is forecasted to grow more than 1% per year. It is expected that in the near future in most rice producing countries the rice area will progressively decrease because of the growing competition of urban and industrial sector for land utilization and land loss for rising sea levels, salinization and erosion. The possibility of expanding the area of rice cultivation is quite limited for the near future, even in some Sub-Saharan countries of Africa or in Latin America, where there are still considerable land areas that are suited to rice production. Expansion of rice cultivation in these areas is prevented by several constraints which are mainly related to the high costs for developing these lands and the scarcity of water resources. Water access is becoming more and more limited even in the regions of the world, where rice has been cultivated for a long time. Between the years 1700 and 2000 total worldwide water withdrawals increased more than 35-fold the rate of population increase. Governments will be induced to plan severe limitations in the use of their water resources particularly in agriculture, which is by far the biggest consumer of water worldwide. Water requirements in agriculture are about 85% of total water consumption in Asia, 50% in North and Central America and 40% in Europe. In the short run, the conflicting demand of water for industrial activities, sanitation and safe drinking use will most likely increase. Rice cultivation is more water consuming than other crops. In the areas with a looming water shortage it is expected that some rice land will be cultivated with other crops. The reduction of the yield growth recorded since the early ‘90s was accompanied by a marked declining trend of the international rice prices and a significant increase of the costs of the production inputs, such as fertilizers, pesticides, labor, fuel, machinery. In most of the rice growing countries this situation has led to a sharp reduction in the return from rice production and has consequently been one of the major causes of poverty and hardship for many small farmers of several developing countries. Low return risks result in the reduction of investments for rice production leading eventually to reduce yields still further. The production costs are very high also in wealthy countries, but in these areas rice production is traditionally highly subsidized. One of the most effective means of addressing the multiple issue in rice cultivation and raising the average yields at the farm level is research. In the last four decades rice science has made considerable progress. Important advances have been made by replacing traditional varieties with new varieties with better traits such as, for instance, dwarf size, improved nutrient response, shorter growing cycle, tolerance to pests and diseases. In the area of rice varietal improvement, more recent advances in hybrid rice and the New Rice for Africa (NERICA) are other two examples of the successful contribution of science to the development of rice. The adoption of hybrid rice technology has been an important tool for raising yield potential. Hybrids allow to increase crop production by 15-20% over the existing high yielding varieties. Hybrid rices are at present spread in China so as to cover about 50% of the total rice surface. The planting of hybrid varieties has enabled this country to increase rice production, while allowing to shift millions of hectares of rice land to other crops. The expansion of these new varieties outside China still require technologies to lower the costs of their seeds. NERICA are a group of rice varieties which have been developed to fit to the cultivation conditions of West Africa. In low input management systems, these varieties show to produce higher yields than the existing varieties. Rice is a genomic model for other cereals and a useful instrument to study the genes underlying fundamental biological processes. Some of the post-genomic applications could be the development of rice varieties able to be grown without inputs undesirable for human health, development of rice types to overcome nutritional diseases (beriberi, vitamin B1 deficiency, etc.) to improve qualitative and nutritional traits (rice protein quality, vitamin content, etc.) by molecular markers and DNA recombinant technologies. Most progress in rice science has been achieved through the collaborative works of international and national research institutes, which shortened the time needed to solve problems and allowed to overcome political and economic barriers. Particularly significant has been, in this regard, the contribution of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural research (CGIAR) and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). CGIAR undertakes rice research with three Centers, the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), based in the Philippines, the West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA), based in Côte d’Ivoire and the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), in Colombia. The FAO mandate is to improve development of countries in the rice sector through the organization of research, development and extension activities. According to the scientists the main objectives of present research on rice are aimed at increasing crop yield through the development of more productive plants and by applying more efficient and environmentally friendly methods of cultivation. Rice has been chosen as the subject of RICE-NET (Eu-India Rice Districts Network Promotion through Agro-Economical, Cross Cultural and Technical Actions and Studies) a project funded by the European Commission under the Europe-India Cross Cultural Programme. Main objectives of this project are to study and compare agro-economical, cultural and historical features of rice cultivation in Europe and India, in order to foster the social and economic cooperation dialogue between the two geographical areas. India is the world’s most important rice growing country with a rice harvested area of about 45 million ha and the second most populous nation, with an estimated population in 2004 of 1,065 million. Agriculture is the backbone of the Indian economy providing direct employment to about 67% of the working people and contributing about 29% to GDP; rice is the staple food of 65% of the total population. India can be considered the cradle of rice domestication (in the region of Assam archeological evidence date back to 5,000 years ago). Rice cultivation is an important crop even in most areas of the Mediterranean basin where the crop has been part of the agricultural scene since the VIIIth century. It came from the East through an unusual series of leaps and bounds, thanks to its incredible capacity to adapt itself to different and variable environmental conditions. At present rice is cultivated in the Mediterranean area of Europe on submerged land in the coastal plains, deltas and river basins allowing a diversification of agricultural production and landscape maintenance. In this area rice is traditionally eaten as main (risotto, paella, etc.) and side dishes to satisfy dietary needs and for pleasure. This publication, is part of the series which includes geographical and historical traits related to rice cultivation. This publication gives a scenario of the agro-ecological and economical traits of rice cultivation in Europe and India.
Agro-economical traits of rice cultivation in Europe and India
FERRERO, Aldo;VIDOTTO, Francesco
2007-01-01
Abstract
”All one needs for one’s brief life on earth is a handful of rice and a hat”. This ancient Chinese saying clearly sketches with few words the importance of this crop for man. Rice is a crop enwrapped with symbolisms, sacredness and tradition, which remind us of the Celestial Empire, the legendary exploits of Alexander of Macedon and Arab occupation of most Southern parts of Europe. Few crops have created such a solid cultural heritage as rice, and has had such deep influence on food and gastronomic traditions, behavior of rural communities, arts and literature. The origin of rice is uncertain, even if it is believed that the plant originated some million of years ago in the Hindustan, a geographical area that includes, at present, the Indian state of Assam, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Myanmar. It has been estimated that this plant has fed more people over a longer period than has any other crop. Even now, one half of the world population and virtually all of East and Southeast Asia is wholly dependent upon rice. In Bangladesh, Myanmar and Viet Nam, for instance, the annual rice consumption per person ranges from 150 to 200 kg and accounts for most caloric and protein intake. Some hundred millions of small farmers and landless workers derive their income from rice production. In most Asian countries rice cultivation provides main employment to the majority of people as it requires up to 250 person-days per hectare. Rice shows an incredible capacity to adapt itself to a great variety of soil and climatic conditions. It is cultivated in areas such as those in the Upper Sind in Pakistan, where the rice season temperature averages 33°C, or in temperate climate areas, like those in Northern Italy, where the mean temperature during the growing season is about 18°C. Rice is grown under a wide range of water availability, from annual rainfall of about 100 mm (Al Hasa Oasis in Saudi Arabia) to 5,000 mm (Myanmar’s Arakan Coast) a year. The crop is cultivated at very different altitudes, from sea level, in river deltas, to the Himalayan slopes of Nepal, at 2,600 m. Globally, rice occupies about 145 million ha, a surface which constitutes one-tenth of the arable land, while in the majority of Asian countries it is one-third or more of the planted area. India, China, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Viet Nam and Thailand are the largest rice producing countries. All these countries together account for more than three quarters of the total world production. During the four decades after World War II, rice surface increased by almost 70% and the total production roughly tripled. During this span of time, most traditional rice importing countries with severe rice security problems (e.g. India, Viet Nam, Philippines) achieved self-sufficiency in rice. The greatest achievements were obtained mainly from the early 1960s, with the so called Green Revolution, which led to the cultivation of new lands to rice or the shift into rice from other crops and to the introduction of higher-yielding varieties or increased cropping intensity. Since 1990 the rice harvested area enlarged by only about 0.4% a year, and average yield of the crop increased by about 2%. If this trend and the estimates of the Asian population growth rate are maintained over the next decades, rice production will fail to keep pace with population growth. In major rice producing and consuming countries in Asia, the population is forecasted to grow more than 1% per year. It is expected that in the near future in most rice producing countries the rice area will progressively decrease because of the growing competition of urban and industrial sector for land utilization and land loss for rising sea levels, salinization and erosion. The possibility of expanding the area of rice cultivation is quite limited for the near future, even in some Sub-Saharan countries of Africa or in Latin America, where there are still considerable land areas that are suited to rice production. Expansion of rice cultivation in these areas is prevented by several constraints which are mainly related to the high costs for developing these lands and the scarcity of water resources. Water access is becoming more and more limited even in the regions of the world, where rice has been cultivated for a long time. Between the years 1700 and 2000 total worldwide water withdrawals increased more than 35-fold the rate of population increase. Governments will be induced to plan severe limitations in the use of their water resources particularly in agriculture, which is by far the biggest consumer of water worldwide. Water requirements in agriculture are about 85% of total water consumption in Asia, 50% in North and Central America and 40% in Europe. In the short run, the conflicting demand of water for industrial activities, sanitation and safe drinking use will most likely increase. Rice cultivation is more water consuming than other crops. In the areas with a looming water shortage it is expected that some rice land will be cultivated with other crops. The reduction of the yield growth recorded since the early ‘90s was accompanied by a marked declining trend of the international rice prices and a significant increase of the costs of the production inputs, such as fertilizers, pesticides, labor, fuel, machinery. In most of the rice growing countries this situation has led to a sharp reduction in the return from rice production and has consequently been one of the major causes of poverty and hardship for many small farmers of several developing countries. Low return risks result in the reduction of investments for rice production leading eventually to reduce yields still further. The production costs are very high also in wealthy countries, but in these areas rice production is traditionally highly subsidized. One of the most effective means of addressing the multiple issue in rice cultivation and raising the average yields at the farm level is research. In the last four decades rice science has made considerable progress. Important advances have been made by replacing traditional varieties with new varieties with better traits such as, for instance, dwarf size, improved nutrient response, shorter growing cycle, tolerance to pests and diseases. In the area of rice varietal improvement, more recent advances in hybrid rice and the New Rice for Africa (NERICA) are other two examples of the successful contribution of science to the development of rice. The adoption of hybrid rice technology has been an important tool for raising yield potential. Hybrids allow to increase crop production by 15-20% over the existing high yielding varieties. Hybrid rices are at present spread in China so as to cover about 50% of the total rice surface. The planting of hybrid varieties has enabled this country to increase rice production, while allowing to shift millions of hectares of rice land to other crops. The expansion of these new varieties outside China still require technologies to lower the costs of their seeds. NERICA are a group of rice varieties which have been developed to fit to the cultivation conditions of West Africa. In low input management systems, these varieties show to produce higher yields than the existing varieties. Rice is a genomic model for other cereals and a useful instrument to study the genes underlying fundamental biological processes. Some of the post-genomic applications could be the development of rice varieties able to be grown without inputs undesirable for human health, development of rice types to overcome nutritional diseases (beriberi, vitamin B1 deficiency, etc.) to improve qualitative and nutritional traits (rice protein quality, vitamin content, etc.) by molecular markers and DNA recombinant technologies. Most progress in rice science has been achieved through the collaborative works of international and national research institutes, which shortened the time needed to solve problems and allowed to overcome political and economic barriers. Particularly significant has been, in this regard, the contribution of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural research (CGIAR) and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). CGIAR undertakes rice research with three Centers, the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), based in the Philippines, the West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA), based in Côte d’Ivoire and the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), in Colombia. The FAO mandate is to improve development of countries in the rice sector through the organization of research, development and extension activities. According to the scientists the main objectives of present research on rice are aimed at increasing crop yield through the development of more productive plants and by applying more efficient and environmentally friendly methods of cultivation. Rice has been chosen as the subject of RICE-NET (Eu-India Rice Districts Network Promotion through Agro-Economical, Cross Cultural and Technical Actions and Studies) a project funded by the European Commission under the Europe-India Cross Cultural Programme. Main objectives of this project are to study and compare agro-economical, cultural and historical features of rice cultivation in Europe and India, in order to foster the social and economic cooperation dialogue between the two geographical areas. India is the world’s most important rice growing country with a rice harvested area of about 45 million ha and the second most populous nation, with an estimated population in 2004 of 1,065 million. Agriculture is the backbone of the Indian economy providing direct employment to about 67% of the working people and contributing about 29% to GDP; rice is the staple food of 65% of the total population. India can be considered the cradle of rice domestication (in the region of Assam archeological evidence date back to 5,000 years ago). Rice cultivation is an important crop even in most areas of the Mediterranean basin where the crop has been part of the agricultural scene since the VIIIth century. It came from the East through an unusual series of leaps and bounds, thanks to its incredible capacity to adapt itself to different and variable environmental conditions. At present rice is cultivated in the Mediterranean area of Europe on submerged land in the coastal plains, deltas and river basins allowing a diversification of agricultural production and landscape maintenance. In this area rice is traditionally eaten as main (risotto, paella, etc.) and side dishes to satisfy dietary needs and for pleasure. This publication, is part of the series which includes geographical and historical traits related to rice cultivation. This publication gives a scenario of the agro-ecological and economical traits of rice cultivation in Europe and India.
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